Table 2 Extracted data from included studies about other depressive symptoms (Loneliness, Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment, Interpersonal intimacy, Self-punitiveness, Anhedonia, Hopelessness, Anger, Insomnia, Suicidality)
Reference | Country | Sample | Symptoms | Measures of self-criticism and dependency | Measures of psychopathology | Analysis | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Schachter and Zlotogorski [74] | Israel | 58 volunteers 35 males 35 females | Loneliness | DEQ | SRULS | Regression analysis Inter-correlational analysis | Self- criticism (β = 0.63, t = 6.761, p < 0.05) Dependency (β = 0.29, t = 2.888, p < 0.05) Dependency (r = 0.34, p < 0.01) Self-criticism (r = 0.67, p < 0.01) |
Burke and Haslam, [19] | USA | 74 depressed patients 39 females (53%) 35 males (47%) Age range: 19- 61 years Mean age = 39.0 | Self-punitiveness (guilt, feelings of failure), Anhedonic symptoms (loss of interest, fatigue), Hopelessness (pessimism, suicidal ideation) | SAS, PSI-R, DEQ, DABS | BDI, IDD | Principal components analysis, Correlation analyses | Correlation analyses: - Self-direction and freedom from attachments component of autonomy (core autonomy) and anhedonic symptoms: r = 30, p < 0.01 - Concern with others’ disapproval component of dependency and self-punitive symptoms: r = 34, p < 0.01 - Self-criticism/perfectionism component of autonomy and self-punitive symptoms: r = 57, p < 0.001 - Self-criticism/perfectionism component of autonomy and hopelessness: r = 32, p < 0.01 |
Besser et al. [11] | Canada | 167 volunteers 86 males 81 females Mean age = 21.61 SD = 4.07 | Loneliness | DEQ (McGill revision) | CES-D UCLA Loneliness Scale-Revised | Zero-order correlations Regression analysis | Self-criticism (r = 0.43, p < 0.0001 and r = 0.62, p < 0.0001 for intimate and non-intimate relationships, respectively) Dependency (r = 0.22, p < 0.05 and r = 0.13, p = 0.22 for intimate and non-intimate relationships, respectively) CES-D (ß = 0.44, t = 3.94, p < 0.0001 and ß = 0.24, t = 2.18, p < 0.03 for relationship and no relationship subsamples, respectively) Self-criticism (ß = 0.22, t = 2.05, p < 0.04 and ß = 0.46, t = 4.28, p < 0.0001 for the relationship and no relationship subsamples, respectively) The low effect of dependency on loneliness found in the zero-order correlations for the romantic relationships group was no longer evident when controlling for participants’ levels of depressive symptoms (ß = 0.04, t = 0.43, p = 0.18 and ß = 0.05, t = 0.65, p = 0.5\2 for relationship and no relationship subsamples, respectively) |
Fazaa and Page [36] | Canada | 807 university students Caucasian (76%); the remaining 24% came from the Middle East, Africa, the Caribbean, or Asia Mean age: 20 years | Suicidality | DEQ (66 items) | BDI-II Risk Rescue Rating Scale (lethality of attempts) | Correlations Standard multiple regressions | Self-criticism-risk (r = 0.53), Self-criticism-risk rescue (r = 0.55) Self-criticism subjective lethality (r = 0.42) Self-criticism-intent score (r = 0.49) Self-criticism-rescue (r = − 0.50) Self-criticism- subjective lethality (β = 0.50) Self-criticism-intensity of wish to die (β = 0.76) Dependency-subjective lethality (β = − 1.57) Dependency-intensity of wish to die (β = − 1.83) |
Vanhuele et al. [80] | Belgium | 134 adult outpatients (DMS-IV mild-severe Depression) | Suicidality | DEQ (66 items) | BDI-II | Latent class analysis | Self-directed aggression: self-mutilation -suicide attempts self-critical |
Fazaa and Page [37] | Canada | 96 students (13 male, 83 female) 75% Caucasian, remaining sample from Middle Eastern, African, Asian, and Hispanic individuals | Suicidality (Impulsivity, intent, and lethality) | DEQ (66 items) | SIS (Suicide intent with previous attempt) (2 items) Dickman’s Impulsivity Inventory (23 items self-report) Likert type item (Suicide item) Risk Rescue Rating Scale (Lethality of attempts) (10 items) | Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) Receiver Operating characteristics curve (ROC) analysis | Correlation Dependency-State impulsivity r = 0.40, n = 96, p < 0.01) Correlation Self- criticism- State Impulsivity (r = 0.35, n = 96, p < 0.01) |
O’ Riley and Fiske [57] | USA | 636 adults (70.9% women; 92.2% European American) Age range: 18–24 years | Suicidality | PSI-II | SBQ-14 (propensity for suicidal behaviour) (14 items) | Pearson’s correlation (relationship between autonomy and propensity for suicidality) Two multiple linear regressions (association between propensity for suicidality and autonomy subscales) | Young sample: Autonomy- suicidality (r = 0.27) Older sample: Need for Control-suicidality (r = 0.26) Defensive Separation (β = 0.11, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01, 95% CI = 0.05, 0.16), Perfectionism (β = 0.38, SE = 0.06, P < 0.01, 95% CI = 0.25, 0.50), Need for Control (β =  − 0.05, SE = 0.04, p > 0.05, 95% CI =  − 0.01, 0.04) and suicidality in younger sample; Need for Control (β = 0.21, SE = 0.08, p < 0.01, 95% CI = 0.05, 0.37), Defensive Separation (β − 0.04, SE = 0.06, p > 0.013, 95% CI =  − 0.14, 0.07), Perfectionism (β =  − 0.10, SE = 0.14, p > 0.013, 95% CI =  − 0.38, 0.19) and suicidality in older sample |
Campos et al. [23] | Portugal | 105 volunteers adults (51 male, 54 female) Age range: 19–64 years M: 36.3 SD: 11.5 | Suicidality Through distress | DEQ (66 items) | BSI (53 items self-report) Sociodemographic Questionnaires (2 items on suicidality) | Structural equation modelling (SEM) | Direct association model: Self-criticism-Suicidality: (β = 0.40, t = 2.394, p < 0.017) Dependency-Suicidality: (β = 0.10, t = 0.712, ns) Mediational structural equation modelling: Self-criticism-Suicidality through distress: (β = 0.54, t = 6.452, p < 0.0001) Dependency-Distress: (β = 0.36, t = 4.459, p < 0.0001) Distress-Suicidality: (β = 0.51, t = 2.284, p < 0.022) |
Dorahy and Hanna [32] | New Zealand and Northern Ireland | 315 students 17.1% males (n = 54) 82.9% females (n = 261) Age range = 18–64 years Mean age = 22.54 SD = 7.24 | Shame, guilt, embarrassment Interpersonal intimacy | DEQ-SF | DES-IV, shame, guilt, and hostility-inward subscales (SG&HI-DES-IV) | Path analysis | Standardized Regression Coefficients for Each of the Model Paths (p =  < 0.01): Introjective orientation - Embarrassment: β = 0.281 - Shame: β = 0.381 - Guilt: β = 0.232 - Interpersonal Intimacy: β = − 0.426 Anaclitic orientation: - Embarrassment: β = 0.359 - Guilt: β = 0.215 - Interpersonal Intimacy: β = 0.266 |
Abi-Habib and Luyten [1] | Belgium | 253 community adults 58.33% females Mean age = 32.21 SD = 5.40 | Anger | DEQ | BDI STAXI | Zero-order correlations | Self-criticism (p < 0.01) - State anger: r = 0.177 - Trait anger: r = 0.393 - Anger-control: r = − 0.220 - Anger-in: r = 0.455 - Anger-out: r = 0.319 Dependency - State anger: r = 0.045 - Trait anger: r = 0.060 - Anger-control: r = 0.070 - Anger-in: r = 0.119 - Anger-out: r = − 0.117 |
Campos and Holden [21] | Portugal | 810 non-clinical adults Age range: 19–67 years M: 36.34 SD: 12.46 | Suicidality | DEQ (66 items) | CES-D (20 items) SBQ-R (4 items) | Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) Receiver Operating characteristics curve (ROC) analysis | Standardized discriminant function coefficient (0.46 (95% CI (0.13, 0.66)) for self-criticism |
Campos and Holden [22] | Portugal | 200 adults (102 men, 98 women) Age range: 19–67 years M: 36,7 years D: 12,8 | Suicidality (ideation and attempt, recent ideation, intention and future probability) | DEQ (66 items) | CES-D (20 items) The Psychache Scale (13 items self-report) INQ (TB-PB) (15 items self-report) Suicide Behaviours Questionnaire-Revised (4 items) | Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) | Indirect effects Self-criticism-suicidality: (β = 0.20, t = 4.17, p < 0.001; SE = 0.029, 95% CI [0.11, 0.30], p < 0.001) Neediness-suicidality: (β = 0.21, t = 4.71, p < 0.001; SE = 0.028, 95% CI [0.14, 0.30], p < 0.001) |
O’ Keefe et al. [56] | USA | 113 Under-graduated students (75,3% women; 93,4% Caucasian, 5,7% African Americans, 0,9% Asian Americans) M: 19.43 DS: 2.28 | Suicidality | PSI.II (48 items) | CES-D (20 items) INQ (TB-PB) | Structural Equation Modelling | Time 1 autonomy predicted Time 2 depression symptoms (β = 0.137, p = 0.002) Time 2 depression symptoms predicted Time 3 perceived burdensomeness (β = 0.251, p = 0.002) and Time 3 thwarted belongingness (β = 0.283, p = 0.005) |
Silva et al. [76] | Chile | 177 undergraduate students (Normal: 52 introjective: 38 anaclitic: 38 mixed AI: 49) 71 males; 106 females Mean age = 21.1 SD = 1.65 | Anhedonia | DEQ | BDI (anhedonia and melancholia subscales) | One-way ANOVA post-hoc comparisons | Anhedonia: group effect [F (3, 176) = 5.64, p < 0.01, η2 = 0.08] normal vs. introjective (ΔM =  − 1.20, SE = 0.32, p < 0.01 Bonferroni) normal vs. mixed AI (ΔM = –0.98, SE = 0.30, p < 0.01 Bonferroni) |
South Korea | 334 students (113 male, 200 female) Age range: 19–27 years M: 21.51 DS: 1.95 | Suicidality | Personal Style Inventory-II (Korean version; 18–19 items | K-INQ14) (14 items) (DSI-SS) (4 items) K-DBI-II (21 items) | Correlations Hierarchical regression | Sociotropy—BDI-II: r (311) = 0.23, p < 0.001 Autonomy-BDI-II: r (311) = 0.25, p < 0.00 Autonomy-Suicide ideation: r (311) = 0.16, p < 0.01 Model 2: PB (β = 0.24, t (298) = 0.42, p < 0.001) and sociotropic personality, β =  − 0.11, t (298) =  − 2.26, p < 0.05 predicted suicide Model 3: Significance TB and sociotropy (β =  − 0.11, t (294) =  − 2.01, p < 0.05) and PB and autonomy (β = 0.19, t (294) = 2.94, p < 0.01) | |
Bar et al. [4] | Israel | 161 young adults 36 males 125 females Age range = 20–30 years Mean age = 25 SD = 1.4 | Insomnia | DEQ-SC6 | BDI-II PSQI ISI | Regression analysis | Association between self-criticism (Time 1) and insomnia (Time 2) evidenced a trend (β = 0.12, SE = 0.07, p = 0.09, 95% CI [− 0.02, 0.26]) Two-wave interaction: the self-criticism by depressive symptoms interaction predicted time 2 insomnia (β = 0.19, SE = 0.07, p = 0.007, 95% CI [0.05, 0.33]) The positive association between time 1 self-criticism and time 2 insomnia was marginally significant for individuals with high (1SD above the mean) levels of depressive symptoms (B = 0.03, SE = 0.02, p = 0.07, 95% CI [− 0.00, 0.08]), but not for individuals with mean (B = 0.01, SE = 0.01, p = 0.40, 95% CI [− 0.02, 0.05]) and below mean (1SD below the mean) levels of depressive symptoms (B =  − 0.00, SE = 0.02, p = 0.68, 95% CI [− 0.05, 0.03]) At 2SDs above the mean of depressive symptoms, the positive association between time 1 self-criticism and time 2 insomnia was statistically significant (B = 0.06, SE = 0.03, p = 0.04, 95% CI [0.00, 0.12]) |